Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Women buying behaviour towards Essay Example for Free

Women buying behaviour towards Essay Introduction Marketers in today’s business environment are presented with the particular challenge of circumventing conflicted messaging, over-saturation of marketing initiatives, and consumer hesitation and guarded behaviour in order to achieve their objectives of enhancing long term brand loyalty and encouraging product purchases. While there are various environmental stimuli which may influence consumer behaviour, the most significant affectation comes from psychological influences associated with marketing communication and personal interpretation of brand and product value. By expanding this value beyond base level interpretation, marketers are able to influence consumer behaviour and redirect purchases over extended periods of time. In order to achieve such standards, however, it is essential that marketers understand what behaviour may be influenced and in what ways this influence may be affected. Undeniably, the product itself has particular importance in this process; however, the result of a productbased marketing campaign may not demonstrate the value desired by a diverse consumer population. Therefore, the achievement of key consumer development and loyalty objectives is based on investigation and analysis of past, present, and future consumer behaviour. This investigation seeks to expand upon the relationship between consumer behaviour and marketing, highlighting those mechanisms that can contribute to more effective marketing practices. A variety of academic theories and empirical studies have been compiled and analysed over the following section and models of consumer behaviour  analysis and marketing programme development will be highlighted. Ultimately, conclusions will be drawn in which effective marketing is directly affected by consumer behaviour, and more effective means of communication and consumer encouragement are the direct result of cognitive stimuli. From both scientific and market perspectives, the ability to influence consumer behaviour is directly reliant upon an understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation which the majority of consumers within a given market or business sector exhibit. By modelling such motivations and establishing value associated with a particular brand or product, marketers will be able to sustain consumer loyalty over the lifecycle of a product and compete more effectively within marketplaces that are highly saturated. A milestone definition of marketing by Peter Drucker (1999) would firmly establish the relative value and importance of consumer behaviour in effective marketing, arguing that marketing is ‘the whole business seen from the point of view of its final product, that is, from the customer’s point of view’ (58). Marketing, therefore, becomes a composite of both pre-purchase consumer behaviour interpretation and forecasting and post-purchase behavioural analysis. In this way, a rapid increase in consumption over a short period of time may be viewed as an opportunity to develop a broader, loyal consumer base and marketing tactics   must change to accommodate such an opportunity. While early marketing efforts were based on communicating new and diverse products with a growing class of discerning consumers, Raaij et al. (2001:60) argue that marketing communication has since been repurposed in order to establish brand loyalty and reinforce consumer perceptions of value. I n effect, marketers attempt to influence consumer behaviour through their presentation of a strategic, targeted marketing message, establishing the unique value of a given product or brand that will ensure future purchasing loyalty. In his empirical analysis of consumer behaviour and its affectation by marketing initiatives, Foxall (1992:397-98) argues that marketing interventions provide reinforcement of the anticipated result or features of a given product while simultaneously modifying the scope of consumer settings (i.e. purchase  intent, brand loyalty, etc.). Such reinforcement is affected through a variety of channels including product features, strategic delays in provision, and modulation of information exchange and messaging (Foxall, 1992:398). Ultimately, the marketer assumes responsibility for a psychological connection between a particular brand or product and the consumer, strategically directing communications in order to improve a cognitive connection that can potentially influence consumer behaviour. Foxall (1992:398) addresses key concerns surrounding the effectiveness of such communication, but indicates that consumer behaviour has a direct impact on marketing strategies, the result of a meas urable need for reinforcement and connection. As the internet age continues to challenge marketers to consider more diverse relationship formats in the online environment, behavioural analysis has quickly become an effective means of programme development and modulation. From trust to satisfaction to site navigability, Taylor and Strutton (2010:954) have compiled widespread academic evidence that investigates various behavioural features that are frequently evaluated by marketers seeking to enhance their online presence and consumer loyalty. Consumer satisfaction, for example, was found to have a direct impact on trust and brand loyalty in addition to the perceived value of a given product, potentially influencing future purchasing decisions or commitments (Taylor and Strutton, 2010:954). While such concerns are more traditional in nature, their applicability within an online purchasing environment is undeniable, and without marketer intervention and a strategic reinforcement of value, there is a potential that future purchases will be impacted. Yet such interventions require a concise and accurate understanding of consumer behaviour in order to effectively provide value-oriented reinforcement and messaging that is directly related to consumer value systems. Aside from the electronic nature of online consumption, the diversification of communication channels and its impact on consumer behaviour in the past decade has had direct and remarkable influences purchasing decisions, brand loyalty, and consumer commitment. Anton et al. (2007:515) argue that as consumer access to information, feedback, and peer reviews has increased, consumers have increasingly become intolerant to inconsistency and mediocrity, the result of exposure to choice. Essentially the consumer right to choose continues to  impact behaviour and future purchasing considerations, as substitute products and competitive messaging have a direct impact on interpretation and loyalty. By communicating added value and fostering a stable and sustainable relationship, Anton et al. (2007:516) suggest that marketers are able to influence consumer switching behaviour and restrict the influence of competitive initiatives. The affectation provided by strategic marketing communication is essentially a direct link to consumer preferences and purchasing models, as psychological affectation becomes a means of sustaining a particular, idealised behaviour. The role between consumer behaviour and marketing is based on adaptation, a concept that is oftentimes difficult to implement within a diverse, competitive environment as firms attempt to strategically manage resources and reduce corporate excess. Thrassou and Vrontis (2009:499) argue that the consumer behaviour is the most valuable information conduit for marketers as they attempt to navigate market changes, competitive influences, and the consumer buying cycle. From channel preferences (i.e. television, magazine, etc.) to message content, the consumer response to various initiatives should be predictable, a function of extensive market research and behavioural analysis (2009:510). Marketing   communications, as a strategic, value-added enterprise for modern organisations has shifted in its purpose, embracing the demonstration and modelling of product value within the context of consumer preferences, as opposed to past models of feature presentation, differentiation, etc (2009:516). Essentially, the role of the consumer has become one of exchange and communication, providing marketers with information necessary to evolve their messaging, models, and marketing channels. While there is inherent value in strategic messaging, the targeted nature of such communication must be linked to key stimuli which inspire consumer behaviour. Chiu et al. (2005:1682) evaluate such phenomena from a more scientific perspective, suggest that the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) paradigm provides evidence the underlying psychological response that can be expected from consumers. Essentially, the relational bonding activities by a firm (stimulus) can have a measurable impact on con sumers’ value perceptions (organism), whereby  their purchase behaviours may be influenced (response) (Chiu et al., 2005:1682). Within such a model, it is evident that the consumer perception of value has a direct influence on their subjective response to stimuli from marketers, but in order to ensure that such responses are consistent with what the marketing initiative had intended, marketers must understand consumer perceptions and their impact on behaviour. Chiu et al. (2005:1687) used empirical data to model the influence which value perceptions can have on switching behaviour amongst consumers, suggesting that dissatisfaction in general cannot be overcome through messaging or branding alone. Instead, there is a measurable link between the depth of the relationship between a given brand and its consumers which can allow marketers to overcome dissatisfaction and achieve a renewed state of trust. Such relational bonding focuses on the inherent value of a given product to the consumer in relation to their wants and needs, establishing a connection between fulfilment and the particular product in which there is an inherent purchasing response when considering that particular need. When considering the decision making process of consumers, there tangible rewards which must be considered for picking a particular brand or product. De Wulf and Okerken-Schroder (2003:97), for example, have suggested that at the first level of relationship marketing, basic, tangible rewards are identified including cost savings and pricing incentives which provide consumers with a more general value based on financial concerns. More dynamic rewards also focus on intrinsic value in which rewards systems connect consumers and products according to an extended, implied position of loyalty. From rewards coupons to frequent flyer programmes to loyalty bonuses, the long term achievement of reward for consumers can lead them to remain loyal to a particular brand, as switching behaviour would ultimately have a measurable consequence for their rewards earnings (De Wulf and Okerken-Schroder, 2003:97). Such second tier rewards systems establish a long term relationship between the consumer and the brand, ultimately defining consumer participation within the programme in spite of other value challenges or product inconsistencies. Oftentimes the value of understanding consumer behaviour can provide marketers with the information necessary to repurpose their products,  meeting consumer needs without directly impacting the product or brand itself. Fine (2010) presents evidence of the information value associated with purchase behaviour, as consumers self-actualise particular objectives and needs through consumptive actions. From luxury items to particular brands, the decision to purchase a particular product is frequently based on deeper psychological influences, oftentimes influencing brand loyalty according to psycho-social interpretation of product value (Fine, 2010:244). While such peer-based acknowledgement of value can be identified through survey and research, information surrounding consumer behaviour and brand preferences is much more valuable when considering rebranding efforts and consumer communication. Ultimately, Fine (2010:245) argues that it is the achievement of status through the purchase of a luxury or personally valuable brand that can provide consumers with a level of satisfaction that is linked to their future purchase intentions. As previously discussed, dissatisfaction or product failure can ultimately lead to reduced value within this relationship and dissolve the psychological connection. Consumer behaviour is both time sensitive and immediate, experiencing influences according to various stimuli over time. Kowatsch and Maas (2010:702) have modelled the impact which direct communication can have on consumer behaviour during their purchasing process, using an in-store, mobile recommendation agent (MRA) to provide information and feedback for consumers as they shop. The inherent value of such decision assistance systems was demonstrated from a practical perspective, allowing consumers to access additional product data that might have otherwise remained unavailable. The authors also determined that the effectiveness of the system (MRA) had a measurable impact on consumer purchasing behaviour, suggesting that the personal value of the information and the means in which it was communicated could determine whether or not the consumer would engage in the purchase (Kowatsch and Maass, 2010:702). These findings also have implications for more practical marketing applications, as information exchange during the consumption process can have different influences on consumer behaviour than information exchanged over a more extended period of time. Whether communicated at the point of purchase or over other channels, the marketing message can have a direct impact on consumer behaviour.  Research on exploratory buying behaviour has been conducted by Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996:132), demonstrating how psychological affectation can ultimately lead to consumers decision to purchase, even without original experience with a particular product. The authors argue that there are a host of unique, individual-specific traits which can lead to differences in product purchasing behaviour, the result of interpretation of stimuli and risk taking proclivity (Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996:131). In order to chase consumers motivated by curiosity or by particular incentives, the authors suggest that marketers must explore the psychological implications of their particular messaging, potentially resulting in a greater sales opportunity. Taking advantage of promotional campaigns and marketing to specific niche consumers are some methods in which consumer behaviour can be influenced by particular psychological undercurrents within a singular marketing mix. The authors also suggested that there may not be a large difference in consumption behaviour amongst individuals with similar cultural ties, as the influence of marketing campaigns may resonate universally amongst these individuals (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996:134). Regardless of affectation, such findings do have important implications when considering the inherent value of marketing campaigns in affecting consumer purchasing behaviour. While marketing initiatives are frequently associated with consumer purchasing behaviour, there are underlying variables related to such consumption that must also be addressed in order to encapsulate the value of a particular product or brand for consumers. Demirdijian and Senguder (2004), for example, have investigated products from a psychological perspective, highlighting key genetic characteristics that influence behaviour and programme future purchasing behaviour. Whether linked to an individual’s personal preferences or actually a function of internal chemical stimuli, the researchers suggest that there are more scientific reasons for consumer behaviour that can ultimately be determined, modelled, and used in product marketing (Demirdijian and Senguder , 2004:351). From the interpretation of a particular taste to the analysis of various sensations associated with fabric, analysts are able to determine and synthesise a future intent to purchase. While such product development can  be used for consumer influence, it can also be used to generate data relevant to the development of those products and services that have greater value to consumers over the long term. While value-added positioning can be achieved through market research, scientific analysis of consumer behaviour will also produce a means of defining those more subversive value components that might otherwise not be identified, from product packaging to secondary uses to the inherent status perceptions held by consumers during use. Conclusions This analysis began with a simple question of why consumer behaviour and an understanding of such processes is useful from the perspective of the marketer. There were a variety of findings uncovered over the course of this research, the majority of which establish some form of affectation according to  psychological influences and messaging stimuli. Inherently linked to brand loyalty and the consumer commitment to the product or brand over time, the means of reducing switching behaviours within extremely saturated marketplaces are directly afforded by marketing communication. The effectiveness of such communication, however, can have the desired (or opposite) result on sustaining consumer loyalty over an extended period of time. While more traditional marketing models focused on product features and competitive positioning of particular brands or products, modern marketing emphasises the relationship between consumer behaviour and value. By enhancing a product’s value, consumers are encouraged to engage in the buying process and are more likely to maintain personal investment in a product over an extended period of time. There are several implications associated with this research and this analysis of various academic perspectives within this field. First, there is a psychological link between purchase and loyalty. Where cognitive interpretation of marketing messages may have influence on purchasing behaviour over the long term, exploratory consumption may result from proper stimulation and more dynamic brand messaging early in the buying cycle. It is this internalisation of intent which ultimately allows marketers to  attract a larger base of consumers, even in a marketplace where there are various substitute products. In order to identify the best fit communication strategy, marketers are oftentimes forced to rely on trial and error or unsupported market research. By modelling particular behaviour patterns, however, associated with exploratory buying, these firms and individuals may be able to predict consumer responses to more dynamic marketing campaigns. From rewards programmes to creative branding to niche marketing, the ability to communicate with consumers according to their personal preferences and their understanding of intrinsic an extrinsic product value is invaluable and can sustain a product’s market expansion over the long term. This research has demonstrated that consumer behaviour and marketing are undeniably linked, and through the understanding of the former, the latter may be more appropriately defined. References Anton, C., Camarero, C., Carrero, M. (2007) ‘The Mediating Effect of Satisfaction on Consumers’ Switching Intention.’ Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 511-538. Baumgartner, H., Steenkam, J.B.E.M. (1996) ‘Exploratory Consumer Buying Behavior: Conceptualization and Measurement.’ International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol. 13, pp. 121-137. Chiu, H.C., Hsieh, Y.C., Li, Y.C., Lee, M. (2005) ‘Relationship Marketing and Consumer Switching Behavior.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 58, pp. 1681-1689. Demirdijian, Z.S., Senguder, T. (2004) ‘Perspectives in Consumer Behavior: Paradigm Shifts in Prospect.’ The Journal of the American Academy of Business, pp. 348-353. De Wulf, K., OdkerkenSchoder, G. (2003) ‘Assessing the Impact of a Retailer’s Relationship Efforts on Consumers’ Attitudes and Behavior.’ Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Vol. 10, pp. 95-108. Drucker, P.F. (1999 ) Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, and Practices. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Fine, L.M. (2010) ‘Altruism and Hedonism: A Review and Discussion of Recent Findings in the Marketing and Consumer Behavior Literature.’ Business Horizons, Vol. 53, pp. 241-246. Foxall, G.R. (1992) ‘The Consumer Situation: An Integrative Model for Research in Marketing.’ Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 8, pp. 383-404. Kowatsch, T., Maass, W. (2010) ‘In-Store Consumer Behavior: How Mobile Recommendation Agents Influence Usage Intentions, Product Purchases, and Store Preferences.’ Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 26, pp. 697-704. Mooij, M., Hoftede, G. (2002) ‘Convergence and Divergence in Consumer Behavior: Implications for International Retailing.’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 78, pp. 61-69. Raaij, W.F.V., Strazzieri, A., Woodside, A. (2001) ‘New Developments in Marketing Communications and Consumer Behavior.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 53, pp. 59-61. Taylor, D.G., Strutton, D. (2010) ‘Has EMarketing Come of Age? Modeling Historical Influences on Post-Adoption Era Internet Consumer Behaviors.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 63, pp. 950-956. Thrassou, A., Vrontis, D. (2009) ‘A New Consumer Relationship Model: The Marketing Communications Application.’ Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 499-521.

Monday, January 20, 2020

An Explication of Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night :: Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night

Introductory Paragraph Dylan Thomas’s villanelle â€Å"Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night† is addressed to his aged father. The poem is remarkable in a number of ways, most notably in that contrary to most common poetic treatments of the inevitability of death, which argue for serenity or celebrate the peace that death provides, this poem urges resistance and rage in the face of death. It justifies that unusual attitude by describing the rage and resistance to death of four kinds of men, all of whom can summon up the image of a complete and satisfying life that is denied to them by death. First body paragraph   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first tercet of the intricately rhymed villanelle opens with an arresting line. The adjective gentle appears where we would expect the adverb gently. The strange diction suggests that gentle may describe both the going (i.e., gently dying) and the person (i.e., gentleman) who confronts death. Further, the speaker characterizes â€Å"night,† here clearly a figure for death, as â€Å"good.† Yet in the next line, the speaker urge that the aged should violently resist death, characterized as the â€Å"close of day† and â€Å"the dying of the light.† In effect, the first three lines argue that however good death may be, the aged should refuse to die gently, should passionately rave and rage against death.   The second body paragraph describes the second tercet.   The third body paragraph: the â€Å"good men†   The fourth body paragraph: the â€Å"wild men†   The fifth body paragraph: the â€Å"grave men† Concluding paragraph   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The speaker then calls upon his aged father to join these men raging against death. Only in this final stanza do we discover that the entire poem is addressed to the speaker’s father and that, despite the generalized statements about old age and the focus upon types of men, the poem is a personal lyric. The edge of death becomes a â€Å"sad height,† the summit of wisdom and experience old age attains includes the sad knowledge of life’s failure to satisfy the vision we all pursue. The depth and complexity of the speaker’s sadness is startlingly given the second line when he calls upon his father to both curse nd bless him. These opposites richly suggest several related possibilities.

Sunday, January 12, 2020

Education and Philosophy Essay

Introduction Critical to an advancing society is the need for teachers to recognize and utilize best teaching practices. Teaching requires knowledge of the subject matter and the skills to effectively engage learners. The best educators conceptualize teaching as anything that might promote student learning. Therefore, the teacher is the engineer of the learning environment (Bain, 2004). Many educators believe that learning is the purpose of all education, however educators differ substantially in how they engineer the learning environment through their classroom teaching styles and educational philosophies. Some educators consider the role of the teacher that of transmitting knowledge through a teacher-centered approach, while others consider the role of the teacher that of leading the student to construct knowledge through a learner-centered approach (McCarthy & Anderson, 2000). The teacher’s role in the learning process is often defined by educational philosophy. The manner in which they view their role in the classroom, how they view the student-teacher relationship and the method of instruction, all reflect their philosophy and beliefs about education (Petress, 2003; Youngs, 1979). Educational Philosophy At the most basic level, philosophy is a quest for wisdom and understanding (Ozmon & Carver, 2007). It â€Å"†¦raises questions about what we do and why we do it† (Elias & Merrium, 1995, p. 5). A philosophy of education is â€Å"†¦a set of ideas and beliefs that guides teachers’ 1 actions and provides a framework for thinking about educational issues† (Kauchak & Eggen, 2011, p. 197). Educational philosophy is the basis that shapes the structure and goals of the relationship between the faculty and the student. â€Å"When considering the inter-relationship of philosophy and activity it is clear that philosophy inspires one’s activities and gives direction to practice† (Elias & Merrium, 1995, p. 5). Faculty beliefs about the purpose of education, expectations in the student-teacher relationship, the teaching-learning process and what methods of instruction to use, are all guided by their educational philosophy (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005; Petress, 2003). A clear understanding of philosophy provides a solid foundation for effective analysis of educational practices and professional growth (Conti, 2007; Elias & Merrium, 1995). The five traditional western philosophies, which form the structure of most educational practices, are idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and reconstructionism. These western philosophies serve as a foundation and perspective for analysis of educational practices (Ozmon & Craver, 2007). There are five educational philosophies which were identified as having roots in traditional schools of western philosophy which form the structure of most educational practices. The five educational philosophies are: liberal, behaviorist, progressive, humanistic, and radical (Zinn, 2004). Professional educators are likely to be influenced in their actions by one or more of these five philosophies. Regardless of teachers’ awareness of their educational philosophy, their beliefs are reflected in their behavior (Youngs, 1979). â€Å"True professionals know not only what they are to do, but are also aware of the principles and reasons for so acting† (Elias & Merriam, 1995, p. 9). What teachers believe and practice in the classroom is related to educational philosophy and to teaching style. 2 Teaching Style The five educational philosophies have each been categorized as influencing either teacher-centered or learner-centered teaching styles (Conti, 2007; Johnson, Musial, Hall & Gollnick, 2011; Zinn, 2001). Conti (1998) describes teaching style as the qualities and behaviors displayed by a teacher which are consistent from situation to situation regardless of curriculum content. Teacher-centered teaching styles are consistent with traditional philosophies of idealism and realism, and the educational philosophies of liberal and behavioralism (Conti, 2007; Zinn, 2004). Learner-centered styles are consistent with traditional philosophies of pragmatism, existentialism and reconstructionism, and the educational philosophies of progressivism, humanism and realism (Conti, 2007; Zinn, 2004). Teacher-centered style is defined as a formal, controlled, and autocratic instructional style which assumes the learners are passive (Conti, 2004). Learner-centered style is defined as a pattern of instruction that is responsive, problemcentered, democratic and employs a collaborative learning environment (Dupin-Bryant, 2004). Regardless of an educators’ teaching styles, their beliefs should be evident in their teaching (Heimlich & Norland, 1994). Teaching style is the application of an educator’s philosophy demonstrated in classroom practices. Teaching style includes the â€Å"implementation of philosophy; it contains evidence of beliefs about, values related to, and attitudes toward all the elements of the teaching-learner exchange† (Heimlich & Norland, 1994, p.40). College of Education Teacher Education Program Teacher education programs are expected to refer to the mission and goals of their colleges in defining excellence in teaching for their own program, course development and teaching styles (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2008). This study investigated a comprehensive university in the Midwestern part of the United States of America. 3 For the purposes of this study the university was given the fictitious name of Newton State Univeristy (NSU). The long history of the teacher education programs at NSU was reflected in the growth of the size and scope of its educational programs and the number of its graduates. The influence of professional national and state accrediting bodies, such as the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and Oklahoma Commission for Teacher Preparation (OCTP), was evidenced by the university’s College of Education (COE) having a well-defined conceptual framework and educational philosophy. The Philosophy of the Unit statement, the COE Conceptual Framework, and other documents, informed the field of educational ideology for the college. Through an inspection of the language and expressed expectations contained in these documents, it was apparent to the researcher that the COE advocated an educational philosophy and a teaching style preference consistent with learner-centered teaching style and humanistic and progressive educational philosophy. Problem Statement Although the College of Education advocated a learner-centered approach, the teacher education faculty may be like many other higher education faculty and may not believe in such classroom practices and philosophies (Labaree, 2005). This potential dichotomy of beliefs between the teacher education faculty and the COE could be a possible source of conflict. What was not known was whether this was typical of the teacher education faculty at this Midwestern state university. For those colleges with clearly defined mission statement, like that of the COE, it is necessary that any fissure between the faculty and college be made apparent. Based on the COE mission statement, Philosophy of the Unit statement, the Conceptual Framework and the rubric criteria, it was implied that the teacher education faculty use 4  compatible teaching approaches to instruct their teacher candidates. However, it was unknown whether the teacher education faculty themselves preferred to conduct their classrooms utilizing learner-centered approaches. Through an assessment of the faculty beliefs, their teaching style preferences may be made apparent. Such a discovery would ascertain whether the philosophy and teaching style preferences of the teacher education faculty were congruent with the ideology of the COE. The mission statement of a university provides the vision and foundation for its employees and stake holders (Velcoff & Ferrari, 2006). If there is tension or conflict between the beliefs and values of COE and the teacher education faculty the foundation of the university could become ambiguous and unstable (Andreescu, L. 2009). There was no information about the educational philosophy and teaching style preferences of the teacher education faculty at this Midwestern state university. A survey of the teacher education faculty would ascertain the degree of alignment between the philosophy and teaching style preferences held by the teacher education faculty and those professed by the College of Education. Purpose The purpose of the study was to describe the educational philosophies and teaching style preferences the teacher education faculty members at this Midwestern state university and to determine the extent to which these matched with the university’s College of Education educational philosophy and preferred teaching style. Research Questions 1. What are the education philosophies and teaching styles of the teacher education faculty? 2. What are the relationships of the education philosophies and the demographic variables of the teacher education faculty? 5 3. What are the relationships of teaching styles and the demographic variables of teacher education faculty? 4. What are the relationships between the education philosophies and teaching styles of the teacher education faculty? 5. To what degree are the education philosophy and teaching styles of the teacher education faculty similar to the stated education philosophy and preferred teaching style of the College of Education? Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework constructed for this study was underpinned by two theoretical constructs: philosophy and teaching styles. There were five educational philosophies; liberal, behavioral, progressivism, humanism and radical. These five educational philosophies were adapted by Zinn (2004) from the writings of Ellias and Merriam (1995). The educational philosophies each have a basis in five traditional western philosophies (Ellias and Merriam ,1995). The concepts of teaching styles include teacher-centered and learner-centered teaching (Conti, 1989; Kauchak & Eggen, 2008). The theoretical constructs of andragogy is influential in this study due to the nature of the relationship of the teacher education faculty and their adult learners who are pre-service teacher candidates (Muirhead, 2007). One of the central objectives of the teacher educators and the COE in this study is to teach pedagogical concepts to the preservice teacher candidates. For these reasons, andragogy and pedagogy are conceptually relevant to this study and are a part of the theoretical framework; however they are beyond the scope of the study’s research questions. The theoretical constructs and the theoretical framework will be addressed further in chapter two. 6 Methodology The participants responded to an e-mail which provided a link to an on-line survey. All full-time and part-time graduate and undergraduate teacher education faculty were asked to participate in the study; however all did not choose to participate. The on-line survey contained the Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory (PAEI), the Principles of Adult Learning Scale (PALS) and a demographic questionnaire. The concept of educational philosophy was measured with PAEI. The concept of teaching style was measured with PALS. Descriptive statistical methods were used to establish the profiles for each instrument and demographic variables. Frequency distributions were used to construct the educational philosophy and teaching style profiles for the participants. Analysis of variance was used to examine the relationship among the demographic variables and the educational philosophies and among the demographics and the teaching styles. Chi Square analysis was used to examine the relationship between educational philosophies and teaching styles. Frequency distributions were used to describe the degree to which the teacher education faculty and the COE were congruent in educational philosophy and teaching style preferences. Table 1 lists the data analysis techniques related to the research questions of this study. Table 1 Summary of Research Questions, Data Sources and Procedures Question Data Source Procedure 1. Education PAEI Frequency distributions philosophies profile Teaching styles profile PALS Frequency distributions 2. Education philosophies and demographic variables 3. Teaching styles and demographic variables 4. Relationship between PAEI & demographics PALS & Demographics PAEI & PALS 7 ANOVA ANOVA Chi-Square Education Philosophy & Teaching Styles 5. Teacher education faculty Philosophy & teaching Style and COE PAEI & PALS Frequency distributions Significance of the Study This research has the potential to benefit both teacher educator faculty and teacher education programs by helping them understand the importance of relationship of educational philosophy and teaching style. This study focuses on previously unknown information about the NSU teacher education faculty and the previously unidentified level of congruence between the educational philosophy and teaching styles of the COE and the NSU teacher education faculty. Therefore, this study’s significance lies in the findings, conclusion and recommendations of the research that will help improve professional development and practice of the teacher education faculty and the COE at this university. A strengthening of awareness of how congruence of beliefs and behaviors relate to teaching and learning is central to the study’s significance. Resolution of the dissonance between the teaching style preferences of COE and teacher education faculty has potential to enhance the NSU teacher education program and provide professional growth. Key Terms Philosophy: Belief about reality, the nature of knowledge epistemology, what is good and valuable in the world and the logic of reasoning. The five western philosophies (a. k. a. traditional philosophies) are idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and reconstructionism. Educational Philosophy: Ideas and beliefs that guide teachers’ actions and provides a framework for thinking about educational issues (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). The educational 8 philosophies are based on five western philosophies. The five educational philosophies: liberal, behaviorist, progressive, humanistic, and radical. Teaching Style: Distinct overt application of teacher beliefs that is persistent from situation to situation regardless of the content (Conti, 1998). Learner-Centered: An interactive learning process in which the learners are actively engaged in experiences and role of the teacher is to serve as a facilitator who is focused on the students’ abilities and needs. Learner-centered style is consistent with the western philosophies of pragmatism, existentialism, reconstructionism, and the educational philosophies of progressivism, humanism and realism (Elias & Merriam, 1995; Conti, 2007). Teacher-Centered: A formal, controlled, and autocratic instructional style which assumes the learners are passive. Teacher-centered teaching styles are consistent with the western philosophies of idealism, realism, and the educational philosophies of liberal and behavioralism (Elias & Merriam, 1995; Conti, 2007). Newton State University (NSU): A fictitious name given to the Midwestern state university where the study was conducted. Andragogy: The art and science of teaching adult learners (Knowles, Holton, Swanson, 1998). Pedagogy: The art and science of teaching children (Ozuah, 2005). 9 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Philosophy Rene Descartes’ famous declaration, â€Å"Cogito ergo sum,† â€Å"I think therefore I am,† (Yaldir, 2009, Tweyman, S. 2005) could be the way that some teachers describe their unmindful connection between their teaching and their philosophy of education. A philosophy provides a foundation for understanding and guiding professional practice (Kauchak & Eggen, 2002). All professions have philosophies which help guide actions and beliefs within their vocation. A common organizational practice is to have a philosophy statement that reflects the beliefs and philosophical priorities which guides the institutional leadership (Graham & Havlick, 2005). Philosophy can exert a powerful influence on professions, such as architecture, medicine and in education (Kauchak & Eggen, 2002). It is a professional practice for educators to develop and profess their philosophy statement (Kauchak & Eggen, 2002). Whether or not they are aware of their philosophy, a teacher’s beliefs and behavior are guided by their educational philosophy (Kauchak & Eggen, 2002; Petress, 2003). The teaching-learning process, expectations of the role of the student and what method of instruction to use, are examples of actions guided by a teacher’s educational philosophy (Conti, 1982; Elias & Merium, 1995; Kauchak & Eggen, 2002; Zinn, 1983, 2004). A philosophical orientation to education allows for comparison with beliefs versus practices. A clear understanding of philosophy provides a solid foundation for effective analysis of teaching and  10 institutional educational practices (Conti, 2007; Elias & Merrium, 1995; Graham & Havlick, 2005). Traditional Schools of Philosophy Philosophers have developed answers to questions about reality, the nature of knowledge epistemology, what is good and valuable in the world and the logic of reasoning (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). These efforts have manifested in five philosophies, considered by many to be the traditional western philosophies which are the pillars for most educators (Conti, 2007; Kauchak & Eggen, 2005; Ozmon & Craver, 2007). The five traditional philosophies, which form the structure of most educational practices, are idealism, realism, pragmatism, existentialism, and reconstructionism. Idealism. Idealism is one of the oldest Western philosophical views. It was established in ancient Greece by Plato (Harwood, 2010). Idealists hold the view that the world does not exist independent of the human mind and that the true nature of reality is based upon ideas. The constant change that occurs in the physical world strengthens the idealists’ conviction that ideas are the only reliable form of reality (p. 34). Teachers using curriculum based on idealism focus on content which emphasizes teacher-led instruction on time-honored ideas and works of literature, history, art, and music (p. 211). It was established in ancient Greece by Plato, and was brought into modern history by idealists such as Kant and Hegel (Harwood, 2010). Mortimer Adler’s book (1988), Reforming Education: The Opening of the American Mind, advocated a curriculum based on these timehonored subjects. Adler placed more emphasis on the ultimate goal of developing intellectual skills which leads to higher order thinking and awareness, and less on promoting students’ understanding  of content. Teachers serve an essential role for idealists. â€Å"To idealists, ultimate 11 reality exists in the world of ideas, so they believe that teaching and learning should focus on ideas† (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005, p. 211). With this ultimate reality, which exists in the world of ideas, teachers lead their students to become rational, logical thinkers and to develop values through classic, enduring ideas (Ozmon & Craver, 2007). Realism. Realism is also a historic philosophy, having roots to Aristotle, Francis Bacon and John Locke (Ozmon & Carver, 2007). Realists center their beliefs on the constancy of the physical universe and argue that the â€Å"features of the universe exist whether or not a human being is there to perceive them† (Kauchak & Eggen, 2002, p. 211). Realists claim important ideas and facts can only be taught and learned through studying the material world. The universe and the essence of all things exist objectively and thus they are not an extension of the mind (Harwood, 2010). The learning environment includes emphasis on order, lecture, practice and high levels of time on task (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). â€Å"Curriculum consistent with realism emphasizes essentials, such as math, science, reading and writing, because they are tools to help us understand our world† (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005, p. 211). Teachers who use educational practices based in realism set goals for their students to use observation, experimentation, and critical reasoning in order to learn and understand logical and natural laws. Realism is noted for the scientific method as the central idea of instruction (p. 211). Pragmatism. Pragmatism is considered a more modern philosophy. American educator, John Dewey, was one of its central proponents (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Pragmatism rejects the â€Å"†¦idea of absolute, unchanging truth, instead asserting that truth is what works† (p. 212). Pragmatists contend truth is relative to the experience of the individual. Because experiences change, the perception of truth changes and the methods for dealing with these also change. 12 Pragmatists accept the methods of science for understanding the human person and solving problems (Elias & Merriam, 1995). Pragmatism philosophy places an emphasis on collaborative learning and problemsolving skills in a self-regulated learning environment (Elias & Merriam, 1995; Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). The process involved in learning is as important as the content in a pragmatist’s classroom (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Teacher practices based upon pragmatist philosophy â€Å"doesn’t de-emphasize the importance of knowledge, but instead attempts to connect it to children’s interests† (p. 212). As a result, emphasis is placed on the tools of problem-based learning, subject integration, and direct hands-on experiences, which focus on individual accountability and development (p. 212). Existentialism. Existentialism holds a strong view concerning freedom of choice. Existentialists assert all people possess total freedom of choice and thus are personally responsible for all aspects of their lives and society (Elias & Merriam, 1995). â€Å"Existentialists stress awareness, consciousness, perception and the total meaning-structure of the individual, his vision and death, his word choices and other aspects of his relating life† (p. 111). Influential existential writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow believed humans become a construct of ourselves, which requires total commitment to a self-determined destiny (Harwood, 2010; Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Empathy and unconditional caring are more important to learning than student attainment of content objectives (Harwood, 2010; Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). The existential teacher views education as â€Å"an individual’s search for understanding† (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005, p. 214). Reconstructionists. In the philosophy of reconstructionism, the societal function of education is a central premise (Ozmon & Craver, 2007). There are two major principles of this 13 philosophy. The first is society is in constant need of reconstruction or change. The second principle is that social change involves both reconstruction of education as well as the use of education in reconstructing society (Ozmon & Craver, 2007). Reconstructionists declare that schools and teachers should serve as agents to both address social inequities and to enact the ideals of democracy (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). An American educator, Theodore Brameld and Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire, were both influential social reconstructionists who strongly promoted that teachers and schools should serve as agents for marginalized people and advocates for a more just and equitable society. Teachers encourage students to become an actively involved force for social change. Teachers influenced by reconstructionist philosophy place emphasis on teaching students to expose hidden bias and on inspiring students to influence the world today as well as in the future (Kauchak & Eggen, 2011, 2005). Philosophies of Education From Aristotle and Plato to Dewey, Rogers and Freire, the traditional schools of philosophy have served as a foundation to educational schools of thought. Although they have useful implications for the field of education, the traditional philosophies were not developed as philosophies of education. â€Å"A philosophy of education is a conceptual framework embodying certain values and principles that renders the educational process meaningful (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 28). † An educational philosophy typically includes, â€Å"terms, aims and objectives, and curricula, methods and the teaching-learning transaction, the role of society, and the roles of student and teacher (p. 28). † Zinn (2004) adapted Elias and Merriam six educational philosophies liberal, behavioral, progressive, humanistic, and radical, which were identified as having roots in traditional schools of philosophy (Elias and Merriam, 1995; Zinn, 2004). The 14 differences in these philosophies centers upon the concept of knowledge, the role of the learner and the role of the teacher and the purpose of the curriculum (Conti, 2007). Liberal Education. Like Aristotle, Socrates and Plato, the liberal education philosophy emphasizes the development of intellectual power (Zinn, 2004). This philosophy is not associated with liberal political views; liberal education philosophy stresses traditional, classical humanism based on the liberal. It is supported by more contemporary educators such as Houle, Adler, and Piaget (Zinn, 2004) and has its roots in idealism and realism traditional schools of philosophy (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Emphasis is placed on general, liberal humanities education to shape a rational mind. The task of education is to impart knowledge of eternal truth and preparation for life through great works of literature, philosophy, history and science (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Teachers with the liberal education philosophy might be referred to as the expert ‘sage on the stage’ transmitting knowledge with an authoritative approach to a rigorous intellectual curriculum (Zinn, 2004; Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Teaching methods based in this philosophy often include lecture, critical reading and discussion, which direct the student in the broadest sense â€Å"intellectually, morally, spiritually and aesthetically† (Zinn, 2004, 72). From a practice standpoint, liberal education is oriented toward conceptual and theoretical understanding and not just absorbing and using facts (Elias and Merriam, 1995). Behavioral Education. Behavioral education is a contemporary philosophy with its foundation in the early 1900’s from psychologists Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner. Behaviorists believed psychology should be about the science of behavior and not about science of the subjective mind (Slavin, 2000). Behaviorism is consistent with the traditional philosophy of realism which utilizes absolute law and scientific method to stress knowledge and skills useful 15 in today’s world (Conti, 2007). It professes the purpose of education is to promote skill development and behavioral change (Zinn, 2004). Emphasis is placed on compliance with standards and societal expectations. The teacher’s role is of manager and controller of the learning environment through prediction and direction of learning outcomes. Some teaching methods used by behaviorists include programmed instruction, skill training, competency-based and criterion-referenced assessments, mastery learning, and feedback and reinforcement. The learner is expected to take an active role in learning and expected to practice new behavior and respond to feedback and reinforcement (Zinn, 2004). Behaviorism is associated with a learnercentered teaching style(Conti, 2007). Generally the process of learning involves the educator diagnosing specific learning needs and evaluating progress towards meeting those needs. Accountability for learning is placed on the shoulders of the learner using competency-based behavioral objectives for evaluation (OBrian, 2001). Several models of behaviorist adult education exist. Special education programs, computer based training, adult basic education programs, vocational training and military training are often based on behavioral educational philosophy (OBrian, 2001; Zinn, 2004). Progressive Education. The educational focus of progressivism is the notion that the child is an experiencing organism capable of learning by doing; education should be life itself, not preparation for living. Progressive education is aligned with the traditional philosophy of pragmatism (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Prominent educators include Spencer, Dewey, Bergevin and Lindeman (Zinn, 2004). John Dewey’s ideas about education reform in the early part of the 20th’century created both excitement and criticism (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). His emphasis on â€Å"seeing learners actively involved in real-world problems† was considered a stimulating concept in the traditional  16 educational system (p. 200). Critics of Dewey’s reform principles believed â€Å"progressive education seemed to de-emphasize content and cater to student whims† (p. 200). Progressive schools encourage cooperation rather than competition; the free interplay of ideas enhance individual effectiveness in society through practical knowledge and problem solving skills (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005; Zinn, 2004). School is viewed as a microcosm of society with emphasis on learning through application of experience and problem solving (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). Classrooms are designed for experiential learning and spaces to learn from each other through active learning and cooperative group learning experiences. The teacher is a guide and organizer for experiential learning through use of scientific method, integrated curriculum, project method and problem based learning (Zinn, 2004). Constructivist teaching, a progressive based teaching method in which knowledge is actively constructed by the pupils, is consistent with the traditional pragmatism philosophy (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005; Ozman & Craver, 2007). All three, pragmatism, progressivism, and constructivism, â€Å"emphasize concrete experiences, real-world tasks, and the central role of the individual in determining reality and promoting learning† (Kauchak &Eggen, 2005, p. 220). Humanistic Education. In the classroom, humanistic philosophy, also known as humanism, places emphasis on a nondirective approach to education which focuses on individual choice rather than on academic subjects or timeless ideas (Conti, 2007). Humanism, which is closely associated with the philosophy of existentialism, is influenced by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, who were primary contributors from the field of psychology (Elias & Merriam, 1995). Carl Rogers stressed person centered and unconditional regard. Maslow is most well known for his hierarchy of motivation which evaluates needs based on growth and being needs, 17 culminating in self-actualization (Slavin, 2000). Several adult educators have contributed to this theory, however Malcolm Knowles may be the most well known in the field of adult education. He spawned the concept of adragogy as a specific teaching strategy for adults (Elias & Merriam, 1995). The function of school from the humanistic educational philosophy is to enhance personal growth and development and to facilitate self-actualization (Zinn, 2004). Teachers are facilitators and partners in students’ growth; however they do not direct the learning. Through the use of self-directed learning, discovery, and experiential learning, the learners assume the responsibility for their education. Cooperation, group tasks and communication are valued as a part of the process of growth (Zinn, 2004). Specific education programs which are based on humanistic educational philosophy are limited. Examples include self-actualization workshops, self-esteem building programs, and the Esalen Institute in Big Sur, California (OBrian, 2001). Some educators consider progressivism to be controversial because too much emphasis is placed on â€Å"children’s interests and self-esteem and that knowledge and understanding has been sacrificed † (Kauchak & Eggen , 2005, p. 218). Radical Education. In the radical education, the political power of the individual is viewed as a responsibility to create and change history and culture through reflective action (Zinn, 2004). Education’s purpose is to bring about, through education, fundamental social, political and economic changes in society. The educational focus is recognition that society needs to be reconstructed and that education must take the lead in that reconstruction (Kauchak & Eggen, 2005). The exploration of the political nature of education, including social control and power in schooling and a rejection of the politics of exclu.

Saturday, January 4, 2020

The Society of Egypt Essay - 1234 Words

The Society of Egypt Works Cited Not Included The cultural traditions, social behavior and practices of any society in history are inextricably linked to the weather and climate of its region. River mouths have always been popular settling spots, even dating back to the ancient civilizations; these water sources provided life, transportation, and basic survival for these communities. Cairo was founded below the delta on the Nile River in Egypt because of the existence of the Nile. Today, this region is hot and dry with the exception of the land directly bordering the Nile. The climate and current weather in Cairo have a substantial impact on everyday life and society in this region. Unfortunately, because of the harsh environment of†¦show more content†¦A typical day in Cairo is dry, hot, and sometimes cloudy or smoggy as well. Over fifteen million people live in Cairo currently, (www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/egypenv.html) relying almost entirely on the Nile for their water. The drying trend continues in this region and on ly exacerbates the already existing social and economic issues in the overcrowded city. The Nile runs northward through six countries before hitting the Mediterranean Sea. Forty-three substantial towns, 1,500 villages, and thirty-five major factories rely on the water of the Nile and add their waste to the river flow before the river even hits Cairo (www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Myllyla.html). Because the water in the Nile has been so plentiful throughout history, the water is not nearly as polluted as one might think due to the amount of use and irresponsible dumping of chemicals and waste matter; however, as the drying trend in the climate of this region continues, the water level of the river is decreasing, thus leaving the river more affected by pollution and more vulnerable to overuse. Historically, Egypt has enjoyed exclusive water rights over the river in the Nile Water Agreement and there have been few disputes since the Nile has been able to provide amply for all those needing the water resource. However, in recent years, the countries using the river have begun toShow MoreRelatedAncient Egypt and Mondern Society981 Words   |  4 Pageswas that of Ancient Egypt. Their systems of religion and technological innovation helped not only to leave a permanent impression on the world, but also served to mold both the civilizations that directly followed it as well as society today. 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If it didn’t, it is not a complex religion. Every complex society needs a well organized government. In Egypt there are many important people. The person with the most power in egypt was the Pharaoh. The leader of